Augustus Read online

  CONTENTS

  Title Page

  Dedication

  Chronology

  Maps

  Family Tree

  Preface

  Introduction

  I SCENES FROM A PROVINCIAL CHILDHOOD

  II THE GREAT-UNCLE

  III A POLITICAL MASTER CLASS

  IV UNFINISHED BUSINESS

  V A BOY WITH A NAME

  VI FROM VICTORY, DEFEAT

  VII KILLING FIELDS

  VIII DIVIDED WORLD

  IX GOLDEN AGE

  X FIGHTING NEPTUNE

  XI PARTHIAN SHOTS

  XII EAST IS EAST AND WEST IS WEST

  XIII THE PHONY WAR

  XIV SHOWDOWN

  XV A LONG FAREWELL

  XVI ABDICATION

  XVII WHOM THE GODS LOVE

  XVIII EXERCISING POWER

  XIX THE CULT OF VIRTUE

  XX LIFE AT COURT

  PHOTO INSERT

  XXI GROWING THE EMPIRE

  XXII A FAMILY AT WAR

  XXIII THE UNHAPPY RETURN

  XXIV THE BITTER END

  INTO THE FUTURE

  Notes

  Sources

  Acknowledgments

  About the Author

  Also by Anthony Everitt

  Copyright

  FOR RODDY ASHWORTH

  CHRONOLOGY

  B.C.

  BEFORE 70

  Gaius Octavius marries Atia

  ? 70

  Gaius Cilnius Maecenas born

  69

  Octavia, Octavius’ second daughter, born

  63

  Consulship of Marcus Tullius Cicero

  Conspiracy of Lucius Sergius Catilina

  September 23

  Gaius Octavius (Augustus) born

  C. 62

  Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa born

  61

  Gaius Octavius (Augustus’ father) praetor

  60

  First Triumvirate formed

  59

  Julius Caesar consul

  58

  Gaius Octavius dies

  58–49

  Caesar proconsul in Gaul

  BEFORE 54

  Octavia marries Gaius Claudius Marcellus

  53

  Marcus Licinius Crassus invades Parthia; defeated and killed at Carrhae

  52

  Pompey the Great sole consul

  49

  Civil war begins. Caesar invades Italy, wins campaign in Spain, becomes dictator

  48

  Caesar defeats Pompey at Pharsalus in Greece

  Pompey killed in Egypt

  Caesar installs Cleopatra on Egyptian throne

  46

  Caesar defeats republican army in northern Africa

  Cato commits suicide

  45

  Caesar defeats republican army in Spain

  autumn

  Octavius at Apollonia

  44

  Caesar Dictator for Life

  March 15

  Caesar assassinated

  April

  Octavius in Italy

  Octavius accepts adoption by Caesar; becomes Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus, or Octavian

  43

  War at Mutina; Mark Antony defeated

  Octavian consul

  Mark Antony, Octavian, and Marcus Aemilius Lepidus form Second Triumvirate; Proscription launched; Cicero put to death

  42

  Campaign at Philippi; Brutus and Cassius commit suicide

  Sextus Pompeius in control of Sicily

  Julius Caesar deified

  Octavia’s son, Marcus Claudius Marcellus (Marcellus), born

  Tiberius Claudius Nero, son of Livia Drusilla and Tiberius Claudius Nero, (Tiberius) born

  41

  Lucius Antonius besieged at Perusia

  Antony meets Cleopatra, winters at Alexandria

  40

  Perusia falls

  Marcellus, Octavia’s husband, dies

  Octavian marries Scribonia

  Parthians invade Syria

  Calenus dies in Gaul

  Treaty of Brundisium; Antony marries Octavia

  39

  Treaty of Misenum

  Ventidius defeats the Parthians

  Agrippa campaigns in Gaul

  Octavian’s daughter, Julia, born

  38

  Triumvirate renewed

  Nero Claudius Drusus (Drusus) born

  January 17

  Octavian marries Livia Drusilla

  Antony dismisses Ventidius

  Sextus Pompeius defeats Octavian off Cumae and in straits of Messana

  37

  Virgil’s Eclogues published

  Treaty of Tarentum

  36

  After initial defeat (August), Octavian defeats Sextus Pompeius at Naulochus (September 3)

  Lepidus dropped from Triumvirate

  Antony’s Parthian expedition

  Octavian granted tribunicia sacrosanctitas

  35

  Sextus Pompeius killed

  Octavian campaigns in the Balkans

  34

  Antony annexes Armenia

  Donations of Alexandria

  33

  Octavian consul (2), Triumvirate lapses at end of year

  Agrippa aedile

  Tiberius Claudius Nero (father) dies

  32

  Antony divorces Octavia

  Octavian publishes Antony’s will

  Consuls leave Rome for Antony

  Oath of loyalty to Octavian

  31

  Octavian consul (3)

  Battle of Actium

  30

  Octavian consul (4)

  Octavian captures Alexandria; Antony and Cleopatra commit suicide

  29

  Octavian consul (5)

  Octavian’s triple triumph

  Temple of Julius Caesar and the Curia Julia dedicated

  Marcus Licinius Crassus pacifies Thrace

  28

  Octavian consul (6)

  Review of Senate

  Temple of Apollo on the Palatine dedicated

  Mausoleum of Augustus begun

  27

  Octavian consul (7)

  January

  First constitutional settlement; Octavian named Augustus; granted a large provincia for ten years

  Agrippa builds Pantheon

  27–24

  Augustus in Gaul and Spain

  26

  Augustus consul (8)

  Dismissal and death of Gaius Cornelius Gallus

  Expedition to Arabia Felix

  25

  Augustus consul (9)

  Julia marries Marcellus

  Augustus falls ill in Spain, convalesces

  ? 24–23

  Trial of Marcus Primus and conspiracy of Fannius Caepio and Aulus Terentius Varro Murena

  24

  Augustus consul (10)

  23

  Augustus consul (11)

  Augustus at Rome, falls ill

  Second constitutional settlement: Augustus resigns consulship, receives imperium proconsulare maius and tribunicia potestas

  Death of Marcellus

  Horace’s Odes (three books) published

  23–21

  Agrippa with enhanced imperium in the east

  22–19

  Augustus in the east

  21

  Agrippa marries Julia, goes to Gaul

  20

  Augustus negotiates entente with Parthia; Tiberius in Armenia

  Gaius born to Julia

  Rufus Egnatius praetor

  C. 19

  Agrippa’s daughter, Julia, born

  19

  Egnatius bids for the consulship

  Virgil dies

  August
us, back at Rome, receives consular powers

  Agrippa subdues Spanish tribes

  18

  Renewal of Augustus’ imperium maius for five years

  Renewal of Agrippa’s imperium for five years, plus grant of tribunicia potestas

  Review of Senate

  18–17

  Social and moral reforms (leges Juliae)

  17

  Lucius born to Julia, Augustus adopts Gaius and Lucius

  Celebration of the Ludi Saeculares

  16–13

  Augustus in Gaul; Agrippa in the east

  15

  Tiberius and Drusus campaign in the Alps

  Drusus’ son, Nero Claudius Drusus Germanicus(Germanicus), born

  13

  Tiberius consul (1)

  Agrippa granted imperium maius, and tribunicia potestas renewed

  Theater of Marcellus and Ara Pacis dedicated

  13–12 winter

  Agrippa in Pannonia to suppress threatened rebellion

  12

  Lepidus dies, Augustus succeeds him as pontifex maximus

  March

  Agrippa dies

  Agrippa Postumus born

  12–9

  Tiberius campaigns in Pannonia; Drusus in Germany

  11

  Tiberius divorces Vipsania and marries Julia

  10

  Drusus’ son, Tiberius Claudius Drusus Nero Germanicus (Claudius), born

  9

  Death of Drusus

  9–7

  Tiberius campaigns in Germany

  8

  Augustus’ imperium maius renewed

  Deaths of Maecenas and Horace

  7

  Tiberius consul (2), celebrates triumph

  6

  Armenian revolt

  Tiberius granted tribunicia potestas for five years

  Tiberius retires to Rhodes

  5

  Augustus consul (12)

  Gaius Caesar comes of age, appointed princeps iuventutis, designated consul for A.D. 1

  2

  Augustus consul (13)

  Lucius Caesar comes of age

  Disgrace of Julia

  Forum of Augustus and Temple of Mars Ultor dedicated

  King Frahâta of Parthia murdered, succeeded by Frahâtak

  Ovid publishes Ars Amatoria

  1

  Gaius Caesar sent to the east with imperium

  A.D.

  2

  Agreement between Gaius Caesar and King Frahâtak

  Tiberius returns from Rhodes

  Lucius Caesar dies at Massilia

  2–3

  Gaius Caesar wounded

  4

  Gaius Caesar resigns his duties and dies

  Augustus adopts Agrippa Postumus and Tiberius, who adopts Germanicus

  Tiberius granted tribunicia potestas for ten years

  Tiberius campaigns in Germany

  lex Aelia Sentia

  Review of Senate

  5

  Tiberius reaches the Elbe

  6

  Establishment of aerarium militare

  Revolt in Pannonia and Dalmatia

  7

  Agrippa Postumus banished to Planasia

  8

  Julia, Augustus’ granddaughter, and Ovid banished

  Pannonians surrender

  9

  Dalmatia subdued

  Varus defeated in Germany; three legions lost

  lex Papia Poppaea

  10–11

  Tiberius campaigns in Germany

  12

  Germanicus consul

  Tiberius’ triumph

  13

  Germanicus takes command in Gaul and Germany

  Tiberius’ tribunicia potestas renewed for ten years; he receives imperium proconsulare maius equal to that of Augustus

  Germanicus receives proconsular imperium

  14 August 19

  Augustus dies

  Agrippa Postumus put to death

  Tiberius becomes princeps

  Julia, Augustus’ daughter, dies in exile

  15

  Germanicus visits the scene of the Variana clades

  17

  Ovid dies in exile

  19

  Germanicus dies, perhaps poisoned

  23

  Tiberius’ son, Drusus, dies, perhaps killed by Sejanus

  28

  Julia, Augustus’ granddaughter, dies in exile

  29

  Julia Augusta (Livia) dies

  37

  Tiberius dies; Gaius (Caligula) succeeds

  41

  Gaius assassinated; Claudius succeeds

  43

  Claudius invades Britannia

  54

  Claudius dies, perhaps poisoned; Nero succeeds

  68

  Nero commits suicide, last member of Augustus’ family to be princeps

  PREFACE

  * * *

  His career was a masterly study in the wielding of power. He learned how to obtain it and, more important, how to keep it. As the history of the last hundred years has shown, empires are hard won and easily lost. In the first century B.C., Rome governed one of the largest empires the world had seen, but through foolish policies and bad governance risked its collapse. Augustus devised a political system that enabled the empire’s survival for half a millennium. History never repeats itself exactly, but today’s leaders and students of politics will find his policies and methods to be of interest.

  Yet Augustus himself is a shadowy figure. Many books have been written about his achievements, but they have tended to focus on the Augustan age, rather than on the man as he was. My hope is to make Augustus come alive.

  As well as narrating his own doings, I place his story in his times and describe the events and personalities that affected him. Shipwrecks, human sacrifice, hairbreadth escapes, unbridled sex, battles on land and at sea, ambushes, family scandals, and above all the unforgiving pursuit of absolute power—Augustus lived out an extraordinary and often terrifying drama.

  The stage is crowded with larger-than-life personalities: the brilliant and charming Julius Caesar; the ruthless Cleopatra, who is often said to have used sex as an instrument of policy; the idealistic assassin Brutus; the intelligent drunkard Mark Antony; the dour Tiberius; the great but promiscuous lady Julia, and many more.

  The incidents and actions that make up a life cannot be fully realized without also conveying a sense of place. So I have sought to evoke the main locations of Augustus’ career, as they were at the time and as they appear today—among them, his house on the Palatine, the secret palace on the island of Pandateria, the low, sandy headland of Actium, and the spectacular city of Alexandria.

  The Roman world is still recognizable to us who live two millennia later. The day-to-day practice of politics, the realities of urban living, the seaside resorts, the cultivation of the arts, the rising divorce rate, the misdemeanors of the younger generation: past and present have many things in common. However, certain forms of degradation—slavery, the low status of women, and the gladiatorial carnage of the arena—shock and astonish us. So, too, does the moral approval accorded to military violence and imperial expansion. Julius Caesar’s largely unprovoked conquest of Gaul was hailed at Rome as a wonderful achievement, but it is estimated that one million Gauls lost their lives in the fighting.

  Augustus was a very great man, but he grew gradually into greatness. He did not possess Julius Caesar’s bravura and political genius (it was that genius, of course, which killed Caesar, for it made him incapable of compromise). He was a physical coward who taught himself to be brave. He was intelligent, painstaking, and patient, but could also be cruel and ruthless. He worked extraordinarily hard. He thought in the long term, achieving his aims slowly and by trial and error.

  Augustus is one of the few historical figures who improved with the passage of time. He began as a bloodthirsty adventurer, but once he had achieved power, he made a respectable man o
f himself. He repealed his illegal acts and took trouble to govern fairly and efficiently.

  One curious aspect of Augustus’ life is that many of the leading players were very young men. The adults who started Rome’s civil wars fell victim to long years of fighting, leaving the baton to be picked up by the next generation. Augustus and his schoolmates Maecenas and Agrippa were in their late teens when they took charge of the state. Pompey the Great’s son Sextus was probably much the same age when he set himself up as a guerrilla leader in Spain.

  Augustus died old, but throughout his long reign he never hesitated to entrust great responsibility to the young men of his family: his stepsons Tiberius and Drusus, and his grandsons Gaius and Lucius. The excitement of making one’s way in an adult world must have been intoxicating.

  We are right to call Augustus Rome’s first emperor, yet the title is anachronistic. At the time he was simply regarded as the chief man in the state. The Roman Republic had, apparently, been restored, not abolished. Augustus developed a personality cult, but he did not hold permanent authority and had to have his powers regularly renewed. Only with the accession of Tiberius did people finally realize that they were no longer citizens of a free commonwealth, but subjects living under a permanent monarchy. So nowhere in this book do I call Augustus emperor.

  The task of writing a life of Augustus is complicated by the fact that many contemporary sources are lost, casualties of the Dark Ages: the autobiography down to 25 B.C. that Augustus wrote in Spain; his correspondence with Cicero; Agrippa’s memoirs; the history of his times by Pollio and Messala’s commentaries on the civil wars after Julius Caesar’s assassination; thirty books of Livy’s great history of Rome, covering the period from 44 to 9 B.C. Only fragments of the life of Augustus written by a friend of Herod the Great, Nicolaus of Damascus, have survived, and Appian’s detailed study of Rome’s civil wars in the first century B.C. closes with the death of Sextus Pompeius in 35 B.C.